Hawaiian
[别称 'Ōlelo Hawai'i, 'Ōlelo Hawai'i Makuahine,]语系:Austronesian
·高危
语系:Austronesian
·高危
信息不完整 “Proposal to Establish Policies and Guidelines for the County of Kaua‘i Regarding the Use of Hawaiian Language” . Keao NeSmith (2016)
"A small community of native speakers of Hawaiian remains... possibly numbering just over 300 in total – inclusive of those residing on Ni‘ihau and Kaua‘i... by the end of the first decade of the 21st century, there may have been as many as two or three thousand native speakers of English (including Kānaka Maoli) who had learned Hawaiian as an additional language, to varying levels of proficiency, in educational institutions... the average proficiency level of L2s is at the lower end of the spectrum and therefore L2s in general are not as competent or fluent in the language as L1s."
"The Hawaiian known among native speakers is extremely endangered and under pressure from the overwhelming English-speaking communities of Kaua‘i County to conform to English and Pidgin... Although the churches and schools that serve the Ni‘ihau community have become the only venues left where Ni‘ihau speakers gather, families still speak the language at home, especially on Ni‘ihau. However, a significant number of children and young adults in the community are preferring to speak Pidgin or English over Hawaiian, and as these people grow up and become parents, they often prefer to speak English to their children, thus severing the linguistic ties that they were privileged to grow up with. Each choice to speak Pidgin or English over Hawaiian contributes to the destruction of the community of native speakers. This is how Kaua‘i residents ended up becoming English/Pidgin monoglots in the 20th century, as opposed to being multilingual, and the same thing is happening among the Ni‘ihau community today."
English
Hawaiʻi Creole English ("Pidgin")
"k and t are interchangeable variants of the same consonant in Hawaiian on all islands. Thus, for example, tūtū and kūkū both mean ‘grandma’ or ‘grandpa’. In the Ni‘ihau variety of Hawaiian, katahiaka, takahiaka, and takahiata are all said and all mean ‘morning’. With the standardized Hawaiian alphabet, this word is spelled kakahiaka. Furthermore, l and r (the latter pronounced as in Spanish) are interchangeable variants of the same consonant in the speech of Ni‘ihau... as a result of the Hawaiian alphabet promulgated by Christian missionaries of the [1820s], k and t came to spelled only as ‘k’, l and r as ‘l’ only."
"There no longer exists a Kaua‘i native speaker community, but Ni‘ihau still has a viable, albeit fragile, native speaker community."
信息不完整 “Australasia and the Pacific” (425-577) . Stephen Wurm (2007) , Christopher Moseley · Routledge
2,000 mother tongue speakers, and 8,000 can speak and understand Hawaiian.
English
Pidgin
A considerable number of young speakers are being trained in the language through immersion courses. There are elderly speakers in addition to these young speakers, but relatively few middle-aged speakers, which results in a lack of communication situations for active language use.
There is widespread literacy in the language.
信息不完整 “Endangered Languages of the United States” (108-130) . Christopher Rogers, Naomi Palosaari and Lyle Campbell (2010) , Christopher Moseley · UNESCO
信息不完整 “Ethnologue: Languages of the World, 16th Edition (2009)” . M. Paul Lewis · SIL International
1,000. 500 with Ni’ihau Island connections, another 500 in their 70s or 80s (1995 L. Wong). 8,000 can speak and understand it (1993 K. Haugen). In 1900 there were 37,000 L1 speakers (1995 Honolulu Advertiser). Census (2000) lists 27,160. Ethnic population: 237,128 in Hawaii (1996 Hawaii State Dept. of Health), 18.8%% of the population (1990 Hawaii State Dept. of Health), and 99,269 ethnic Hawaiians on the USA mainland (1990 census), including 24,245 in California. Ethnic Hawaiians include 8,244 pure Hawaiian, 72,809 between 50%% and 99%% Hawaiian, 127,523 less than 50%% Hawaiian in Hawaii (1984 Office of Hawaiian Affairs). In 1778 there were believed to have been more than 500,000 pure Hawaiians (1995 W. Harada).
2,000 (Wurm 2007). 500 with Ni’ihau Island connections, another 500 in their 70s or 80s (1995 L. Wong). 8,000 can speak and understand it (1993 K. Haugen). In 1900 there were 37,000 L1 speakers (1995 Honolulu Advertiser). 2000 census lists 27,200. Ethnic population: 336,000. 237,000 in Hawaii (1996 Hawaii State Department of Health), 19% of the population (1990 Hawaii State Department of Health), and 99,000 ethnic Hawaiians on the United States mainland (1990 census), including 24,300 in California. Ethnic Hawaiians include 8,300 pure Hawaiian, 72,800 between 50% and 99% Hawaiian, 127,500 fewer than 50% Hawaiian in Hawaii (1984 Office of Hawaiian Affairs). In 1778 there were believed to have been more than 500,000 pure Hawaiians (1995 W. Harada). (2013.)
信息不完整 “The World Atlas of Language Structures” . Bernard Comrie and David Gil and Martin Haspelmath and Matthew S. Dryer · Oxford University Press
信息不完整 “Loanwords in Hawaiian” (771-789) . 'Ōiwi Parker Jones (2009) , Martin Haspelmath, Uri Tadmor · De Gruyter Mouton
"Although there is no accurate census or survey, Kapono (1998:199) estimates that there were about 5,000 Hawaiian speakers in 1995. Of these, 1,000 were mānaleo (i.e., "heritage speakers" or "native-speaking elders"), 400 of whom had connections to the island of Ni'ihau .... We may identify another 1,000 of the estimate to be young native Hawaiian speakers, who acquired the language naturally, during the critical period, and without formal instruction .... The remaining 3,000 speakers in Kapono's estimate were second language speakers, who learned the language (often fluently) through formal instruction."
English
Pidgin
信息不完整
Pidgin
English
信息不完整 “Insights from indigenous language immersion in Hawai‘i” (36-57 ch. Insights from indigenous language immersion in Hawai‘i.) . Kamana, K. and W.H. Wilson. (2011) , Diane J. Tedick, Donna Christian, and Tara Williams Fortune · Multilingual Matters
By the end of the 20th century fewer than 700 Hawaiian-dominant native speakers remained out of a Native Hawaiian population of 401,162 (US Census Bureau 2000) (p. 37).
信息不完整 “The teaching and learning of Hawaiian in mainstream educational contexts in Hawai‘i: Time for change?” . Keao NeSmith (2012)
"By the end of the 20th century, it is likely that there were significantly fewer than 1,000 native speakers of Hawaiian. Indeed, among Hawaiian language teachers today, it is regularly postulated that there are fewer than 500 native speakers left. However, by the end of the first decade of the 21st century, there may have been as many as two or three thousand native speakers of English (including Kānaka Maoli) who had learned Hawaiian as an additional language, to varying levels of proficiency, in educational institutions... Apart from the Ni‘ihau community, there are very few native-speakers. Most of them are aged 60 or over and many of them have not had the opportunity to use the language for day-to-day purposes in decades and therefore have forgotten how to express many thoughts in Hawaiian."
English
Hawaiʻi Creole English ("Pidgin")
"In 1978, the US-backed State of Hawai‘i convened a constitutional convention in which its constitution was amended to designate both Hawaiian and English as the official languages of that government entity. However, although there have been some significant gains in support since 1978, this endorsement has largely carried little meaning."
"Privately owned Ni‘ihau Island is the only place left in the Hawaiian Islands today where, owing to restricted access to non-residents and the tight-knit, rural lifestyle of residents, a small community of native speakers of Hawaiian remains. Hawaiian-speaking families who are relatives of those living on Ni‘ihau live primarily on the west side of neighboring Kaua‘i Island."